Recent research has provided new insights into the genetic interactions between Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens. Neanderthals, or “Homo neanderthalensis,” were strong hominins with unique physical features who lived in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East from about 430,000 years ago until their extinction 39,000 years ago. Homo sapiens, originating in Africa around 300,000 years ago, encountered Neanderthals as they moved into these areas. Two recent studies have clarified when they interbred. One study, which examined the oldest Homo sapiens DNA from remains in Germany and the Czech Republic, found gene flow between 49,000 and 45,000 years ago. Another study, using ancient and modern genomes, suggested a similar range of 50,500 to 43,500 years ago. These interactions left a lasting genetic impact on modern humans. Some Neanderthal genes helped Homo sapiens survive, especially in immune response, skin color, and metabolism. For example, a Neanderthal immune gene helps protect against coronaviruses. However, harmful Neanderthal genes disappeared over time. Today, about 1-2% of DNA in non-African populations comes from Neanderthals. These findings highlight the complex history of early humans and the lasting influence of Neanderthal genes.